BOUNDARIES.

Except Barsi in the north-east which is surrounded by the Nizam's country, Sholapur is bounded on the north by Ahmadnagar and the Nizam's country; on the east by the Nizam's country and the Akalkot state; on the south by the river Bhima, the district of Bijapur, and the Patvardhan and Jath states; and on the west by Atpadi, Satara, Phaltan, Poona, and Ahmadnagar. The district outline is irregular. Beyond the limits of the main body of the district in the extreme north-east lies the whole of Barsi, and several groups of Karmala, Sholapur, and Sangola villages. Several Akalkot, Jath, Nizam, and Patvardhan villages also lie within Sholapur limits.

SUB DIVISIONS.

For administrative purposes the lands of the district are distributed over seven sub-divisions. Of these Barsi lies isolated in the north-east, Sholapur is in the south-east, Sangola in the south-west, Malsiras in the west, Karmala in the north-west, and Madha and Pandharpur in the centre. These sub-divisions have, on an average, an area of 646 square miles, 102 villages, and 83,212 people:

Sholapur Administrative Details, 1882-83.

continued..

ASPECT.

The district has a length of about 100 miles from the north of Karmala to the south of Sangola, and a breadth of about 100 miles from the west of Malsiras to the east of Sholapur. It lies in the basins of the Nira, Bhima, and Sina. Most of Malsiras in the west drains north into the Nira which falls into the Bhima in the west of the district. The drainage area of the Bhima, which winds north-east through the centre of the district, includes on the left bank south Karmala, Madha, Pandharpur, and south Sholapur, and on the right bank east Malsiras, Sangola, and south Phandharpur. The Sina, which flows roughly south-east parallel to the Bhima, drains Barsi and north-east Sholapur on the left, and north Karmala and Madha and a little of central Sholapur on the right. Round Sholapur the country is about 1800 feet above sea level. Except north Barsi west Madha and south-west Malsiras and Karmala which are hilly, Sholapur is flat or waving. Most of the surface rolls in long low uplands separated by hollows, with an occasional level. The shallow-soiled -uplands are suited for pasture, and the deep-soiled lowlands under careful tillage yield the richest crops. In Karmala and Madha in the north-east and centre the watershed of the Bhima and Sina is marked by low table lands and small separate hills. Except this, the Sholapur uplands are gently rounded swellings of trap overgrown with yellow stunted spear-grass. Low-lying villages are shaded by trees, and Barsi has large mangoe groves. The rest of the district is bare bleak and treeless. The only timber trees are stunted babhuls and mangoes and a few nims Azadirachta indica and pipals Ficus religiosa. As these afford no cover the district is without the larger wild animals except the wild pig and wolves. Near river and stream banks the soil is deep black and rich, and on rising ground it is gravelly and reddish, yielding little but stunted yellow spear-grass. In Sangola the soil is black and stony. The villages, as a rule, are small and generally lie on stream or river banks one to four miles apart. The Barsi and Madha villages are shady; in the rest of the district they are generally bare. Except in Sangola and Malsiras most of the villages are walled. In Sholapur the village walls have fallen, and in other parts they are decaying, though in almost all the gate remains. In Pandharpur and Sangola the husbandmen though poor, are skilful; in the rest of the district, they are generally poor and careless, trusting much to chance and the season.

HILLS.

Except in Barsi, Karmala, Madha, and Malsiras, Sholapur has few hills. The chief hills are Vadshighat in Barsi, Vaghoba and Bodki in Karmala, Chinchgaon in Madha, and Gurvad in Malsiras. In north Barsi several spurs from the Balaghat range in the Nizam's country, twelve to sixteen miles to the north-east, pass south for a few miles. Of these the chief is the Vadshighat about fourteen miles east of Barsi, noted for a cave temple sacred to Rameshvar. In Karmala Vaghoba hill, about 210 feet high, and Bodki hill, about 190 feet high, lie about sixteen miles south-east of Karmala. The slopes of both hills are covered with stunted grass, and the tops are flat and untilled. Above the trap rock the hills have generally three layers of soil, a surface layer of red murum, a second of white earth mixed with lime stone, and a third of murum or broken trap. In the Madha sub-division, about four miles north of Madha, the mala or highland of Chinchgaon, about 300 feet above the plain, lies between the villages of Chinchgaon Tadval and Vadshinga. The hill is steep and covered with grass and has a spring at the foot. Its flat top is tilled by Maratha husbandmen, and a cart-road passes by the hill with little traffic. A layer of murum or broken trap separates the black surface soil from the central trap. In the west of the district a chain of flat-topped hills runs along south-west Malsiras. The chief hill, near the villge of Gurvad, about eight miles south of Malsiras, is crowned by a temple of Tukai about 400 years old.

RIVERS.

The chief rivers are the Bhima, with its right bank feeders the Nira and the Man, and its left bank feeder the Sina which receives the Bhogavati from the north. The Bhima and Sina run south-east, the Nira nearly east, the Man north-east, and the Bhogavati southeast. During the dry season all the rivers are fordable; even in the Bhima except occasional pools the stream dries or runs only ankle-deep. During the south-west monsoon the smaller streams are flooded by local rain, and the Bhima by heavy falls in the Poona Sahyadris.

Bhima.

The Bhima is one of the chief feeders of the Krishna. It rises in 19° 4' north latitude and 73° 34' east longitude, in the Sahyadris in the Khed sub-division of Poona. The source of the river, which is adorned by the temple of Bhimashankar, is one of the twelve chief ling shrines in India. From Bhimashankar the river runs south-east through Poona, Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, and Bijapur, and, after forming the north-eastern boundary of the Bombay Karnatak, falls into the Krishna about sixteen miles north of Raichur in the Nizam's territory. Of about 180 miles which lie within Sholapur limits, for a winding length of about seventy miles the river separates Karmala on the left from Indapur in Poona on the right; for about six miles it separates Madha on the left from Malsiras on the right; for about twenty miles it separates Pandharpur on the left from Malsiras on the right; for about forty miles it passes through Pandharpur; and for about forty miles it separates Sholapur on the left from Bijapur on the right. The course of the river is throughout winding with a generally south-east direction. Near the centre of the Pandharpur subdivision it passes on the right Pandharpur one of the holiest places in the Deccan. Of its three feeders the Bhima receives the Nira from the right about five miles south-west of Tembhurni in Karmala, in the west of the district; the Man also from the the right near Sarkoli about ten miles south-east of Pandharpur in the south of the district; and the Sina from the left about ten miles southwest of Ahirvadi in Sholapur in the south-east of the district. The water of the Bhima is little used for irrigation. The river flows between high alluvial and tilled banks 500 to 1500 feet apart. In places it is rocky, but as a rule the bed is either smooth and gravelly or muddy. Beginning from the north, the Bhima is crossed by nine ferries, three in Pandharpur, at Kuroli Pandharpur and Brahmapuri, and six in Sholapur, at Grhodeshvar, Kusar, Bhandar-Kavta, Sadepur, Aunj, and Takli. During the rains the Bhima flows full and strong with occasional floods. After the rains it rapidly dwindles, till in the hot season pools remain only in the deeper hollows with an occasional flow in the parts between.

Nira.

The Nira, the chief right bank feeder of the Bhima, rises in the Bhor state in the spur of the Sahyadris which is crowned by the fort of Torna. From the Sahyadris it runs south-east and east along the borders of Poona, Satara, and Sholapur. Of its total length of 110 miles about thirty lie on the borders of Poona and Sholapur. During these thirty miles the Nira runs nearly east forming the north boundary of Malsiras, and, passing the villages of Akluj and Tambve, falls into the Bhima about five miles south-west of Tembhurni in Karmala. The banks of the Nira are steep and rocky and its bed is gravelly. It is about 400 feet broad, and has a few small pools from which water is drawn by lifts or budkis to water garden crops.

Man.

The Man, a right bank feeder of the Bhima, rises in a spur of the Mahadev range in the Man sub-division of Satara and runs through Man in Satara, Atpadi in the Pant Pratinidhi state, and Sangola and Pandharpur in Sholapur. Of its total length of about 100 miles, about fifty lie within Sholapur limits. For about fifty miles to the west of Sholapur limits the river runs south east, and, for fifty miles within Sholapur limits, it runs north-east passing the towns of Nazre and Sangola, and falling into the Bhima at Sarkoli, about ten miles south-east of Phandharpur. The banks of the Man are low and cultivated, and its bed is gravelly.

Sina.

The Sina, one of the chief left bank feeders of the Bhima, rises fourteen miles west of the town of Ahmadnagar, and running south-east through Ahmadnagar and Sholapur, falls into the Bhima near Kudul, about twenty miles south of Sholapur. Of 110 miles, the total length of the Sina within Sholapur limits, for about sixty the Sina separates the Nizam's country on the left from Karmala and Madha on the right; for forty-five miles it flows through Madha and Sholapur; and for five miles it separates Akalkot on the left from Sholapur on the right. About four miles north of Mohol in Madha, the Sina receives the Bhogavati after a course of about forty miles north through Barsi and the Nizam's lands. The Nira is 300 to 600 feet broad. The banks are steep and earthy and the bed Bandy and sometimes rocky. The Sina is crossed by five ferries, one in Madha at Kolgaon, and four in Sholapur at Lamboti, Tirha, Vaddakbal, and Vangi.

Bhogavati.

The Bhogavati, a large tributary of the Sina, rises in the Balaghat range in the north-east of Barsi, and after a south-westerly course of about forty miles through Barsi and part of the Nizam's dominions and Madha falls into the Sina about four miles north of Mohol in Madha. It is about 100 feet broad, and has a slender stream during the hot season.

WATER SUPPLY.

AS the rainfall is light and uncertain Sholapur often suffers from want of water. Even in ordinary seasons during the hot weather the smaller streams and most of the wells dry and the water in the reservoirs becomes scanty and unwholesome. In 1882-83 according to the Collector's returns, Sholapur had 18,402 wells and 253 ponds. Of late years much has been done to improve the water storage of the district, the chief work being the making of the Ekruk lake about three miles north of Sholapur with an area of 4640 acres of water surface and commanding 17,746 acres of land. The other most important reservoirs are at Koregaon in Barsi, and Ashti in Madha, and four watter supply-works at Sholapur, Barsi, Karmala, and Madha. [Details of these reservoirs are given under Irrigation in Chapter IV.]

GEOLOGY.

As in most of the Deccan, the general geological formation is trap, covered in most places with a shallow over-layer of very light soil, and in parts by a good depth of rich loam suited for cotton.

CLIMATE AND SEASONS.

The [Transactions Medical and Physiological Society, IV. 134-5.] climate of Sholapur is healthy, and, except the hot months of March April and May, is agreeable and free from extremes of heat or of cold. The year may be roughly divided into three nearly equal seasons; the cold season from November to February, the hot season from March to mid-June, and the rainy season from mid-June to the end of October. October is a time of transition from the rainy to the cold season. During the cold season the air is generally bright, clear, and bracing, the nights and mornings being especially cool and freshening. Easterly and north-easterly winds prevail but are not strong enough to be unpleasant. The hot season from March to June, especially during March and April, is marked by a dry scorching heat. The mean temperature during this period is 86°; and the climate is oppressive with strong hot winds and occasional dust-storms. In March the hot winds blow from the east and in April and May from the west. The hot winds generally cease after nine and the nights are usually cool. During May clouds begin to gather, the wind grows fitful, and heavy thunderstorms generally cool the air. The rainy, months are pleasant. The sky is more or less overcast, rain falls in frequent heavy showers broken by gleams of sunshine, the moisture is never excessive, the temperature is generally mild and even, and the wind almost always fresh and cool from the west and south-west, a delightful change from the dry stifling hot winds. The mean temperature during the rains is 80° and from November to February about 73°. Bitter cold is almost unknown.

RAINFALL.

All over the district the rainfall is scanty. For the ten years ending 1882 rain returns are available for seven stations. During these ten years the highest recorded fall is 66 inches at Sholapur in 1878 and the lowest is 6 inches at Karmala and Sangola in 1876; the total average fall of the district varied from 36 ³/7 inches in 1878 to 9 1/7 inches in 1876 and averaged 25 3/5 inches. During the ten years ending 1882, at Sholapur the fall varied from 66 inches in 1878 to 11 inches in 1876 and averaged 31 3/10 inches; at Barsi, about forty miles north of Sholapur, the fall varied from 41 inches in 1882 to 12 inches in 1876 and averaged 28 ½ inches; at Karmala, about seventy miles north-west of Sholapur, the fall varied from 34 inches in 1882 to 6 inches in 1876 and averaged 24 inches; at Madha, about thirty-five miles north-west of Sholapur, the fall varied from 32 inches in 1882 to 8 inches in 1876 and averaged 25 7/10 inches; at Pandharpur, about thirty-six miles west of Sholapur, the fall varied from 44 inches in 1874 to 8 inches in 1876 and averaged 27 4/5 inches; at Malsiras about sixty-five miles west of Sholapur, the fall varied from 41 inches in 1877 to 12 inches in 1875 and averaged 20 3/10 inches; and at Sangola, about fifty miles west of Sholapur, the fall varied from 34 inches in 1877 to 6 inches in 1876 and averaged 21 4/5 inches. The returns show that, except at Malsiras where the lowest fall is in 1875, the year of the lowest rainfall is 1876 at all the stations, and the year of the highest fall is 1878 at Sholapur in the east, 1882 at Barsi, Karmala, and Madha in the north and north-west, 1874 at Pandharpur in the centre, and 1877 at Malsiras and Sangola in the west. The details are:

Sholapur District Rainfall, 1873-1882.

[Besides these, for the eighteen years ending 1870 rain returns are available for Sholapur, and for the eight years ending 1870 for Barsi. At Sholapur, during the eighteen years ending 1870, the fall varied from 35.78 inches in 1869 to 13.65 inches in 1855 and averaged 26.63 inches. The details are: 25.75 inches in 1853, 31.58 in 1854, 13.65 in 1855, 23.77 in 1856, 34.14 in 1857, 33.50 in 1858, 83.33 in 1859, 33.07 in 1860, 26.47 in 1861, 23.74 in 1862, 21.28 in 1863, 20.77 in 1864,13.72 in 1865, 20.02 in 1866, 25.87 in 1867, 25.92 in 1868, 35.78 in 1869, and 35.03 in 1870. At Barsi during the eight years ending 1870, the fall varied from 43.19 inches in 1870 to 18.62 inches in 1868 and averaged 2674 inches. The details are: 24.20 inches in 1863, 22.56 in 1864, 19.05 in 1865, 22.45 in 1866, 25.76 in 1867, 18.62 in 1868,38.12 in 1869, and 43.19 in 1870. Bombay Government Selections, New Series, CL. 176.]

For the ten years ending 1882, monthly rain returns are available for the city of Sholapur. During these ten years the returns show three months when rain seldom falls, January February and December; four months when rain generally falls, March April May and November; and five months when rain always falls, June July August September and October. Of the ten years, in one rain fell in January, in three in February, and in four in December; in six in March, in nine in April, in eight in May, and in seven in November; and in all ten years in June July August September and October. Of the twelve months in the year, January is the dryest month with a fall varying from 0.09 of an inch in 1882 to nothing for nine years and averaging about 0.01 of an inch; February comes next with a fall varying from 0.64 of an inch in 1873 to nothing for seven years and averaging 0.11 of an inch; December is third, with a fall varying from 1.46 inches in 1877 to nothing for six years and averaging 0.28 of an inch; March is fourth, with a fall varying from 1.52 inches in 1876 to nothing for four years and averaging 031 of an inch; November is fifth, with a fall varying from 2.17 inches in 1881 to nothing for three years and averaging 0.54 of an inch; April is sixth, with a fall varying from 2.64 inches in 1873 to nothing in 1877 and averaging 060 of an inch; May is seventh, with a fall varying from 4.28 inches in 1873 to nothing for two years and averaging 1.26 inches; October is eighth, with a fall varying from 13.74 inches in 1878 to 0.26 of an inch in 1876 and averaging 3.39 inches; July is ninth, with a fall varying from 8.56 inches in 1874 to 2.08 inches in 1881 and averaging 4.20 inches; June is tenth, with a fall Varying from 12.54 inches in 1882 to 2.05 inches in 1876 and averaging 5.51 inches; August is eleventh, with a fall varying from 17.68 inches in 1878 to 2.95 inches in 1874 and averaging 6.99 inches; and September is the wettest month, with a fall varying from 20.59 inches in 1878 to 0.41 of an inch in 1879 and averaging 8.82 inches. Of the ten years, for one the rainfall was 66.42 inches in 1878; for one 40.57 inches in 1882; for three between thirty-five and thirty inches, 34.17 inches in 1877, 32.44 in 1880, and 31.14 in 1873; for four between twenty-five and twenty inches, 24.68 inches in 1875, 24.62 in 1874, 23.06 in 1879, and 22.80 in 1881: and for one 10.57 inches in 1876. The details are:

Sholapur City Rainfall, 1873-1882.

HEAT.

During the five years ending 1882, the extreme greatest heat varied from 110.7° in April 1881 to 87.5° in December 1879; extreme least heat from 726° in May 1878 to 46.1° in November 1881; the mean greatest heat from 107°in May 1881 to 83.4° in 1879; the mean least heat from 77.5° in May 1880 to 52.8° in December 1879; the mean range from 34.3° in March 1882 to 13.5° in August 1879; and the mean temperature from 91.75° in May 1881 to 68.55° in December 1879. Of the five years, in three the month of highest greatest heat was April, in 1881 with 110.7°, in 1880 with 109.3°, and in 1882 with 109.2°; in one it was May with 110° in 1879; and in one it was March with 108.7° in 1878; and in all the five years the month of the lowest greatest heat was December, in 1882 with 90.2°, in 1880 with 88.6°, in 1878 with 88.3°, in 1881 with 88.2°, and in 1879 with 87.5°. Of the five years in four the month of the highest least heat was May, in 1878 with 72.6°, in 1881 with 71.4°, in 1880 with 71.3°, and in 1882 with 68°, and in one it was April and May with 69.4° in 1879; and in two years the month of the lowest least heat was December, in 1878 with 49.1° and in 1879 with 46.3°; in two it was November, in 1882 with 47.7°, and in 1881 with 46.1°; and in one it was January with 46.4° in 1880. Of the five years, in three the month of the highest mean greatest heat was April, in 1879 with 106.1°, in 1880 with 106°, and in 1882 with 105.3°; and in two it was May, in 1881 with 107° and in 1878 with 104.6°; and in three years the month of the lowest greatest heat was December, in 1882 with 86.9°, in 1880 with 85.7°, and in 1878 with 85.4°; in one it was November with 85.1° in 1881; and in one it was August with 83.4° in 1879. Of the five years the month of the highest mean least heat was May throughout, in 1880 with 77.5°, in 1879 with 77.3°, in 1881 with 76.5°, in 1878 with 76°, and in 1882 with 75.7°; and in. four years the month of the lowest mean least heat was December, in 1878 with 57.3°, in 1881 with 56.2°, in 1882 with 55.4°, and in 1879 with 52.8°; and in one it was January with 55.3° in 1880. Of the five years, in two the month of the highest mean range was March, in 1882 with 34.3°, and in 1878 with 32.4°; in one it was January with 33.1° in 1880; in one it was February with 32.6° in 1881; and in one it was December with 31.5° in 1879; and in two years the month of the lowest mean range was September in 1881 with 17.8°, and in 1880 with 17.2°; in one it was July with 16.4° in 1882; in one it was August and September with 16.2° in 1878, and in one it was August with 13.5° in 1879. Of the five years, in four the month of the highest mean temperature was May, in 1881 with 91.75°, in 1880 with 91.35°, in 1878 with 90.3°, and in 1882 with 90.2°; and in one it was April with 90.55° in 1879; and in all the five years the month of the lowest mean temperature was December, in 1880 with 72.55°, in 1878 with 71.35°, in 1881 with 71.2°, in 1882 with 71.15°, and in 1879 with 68.55°. The details are:

Sholapur City Temperature,, 1873-1882.